Maritime transportation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Sea transportation - Essay Example It was anticipated to ascend between 6.5-7% per annum throughout the following ten years (MPA, 2012). The explanation for Singapore’s sea industry’s lively achievement is its key area and steady rivalry advanced into a vital community for sea business. Arranged in the focal point of a complex worldwide snare of exchange courses and associated with more than 600 ports in more than 120 nations, Singapore is nothing not exactly a worldwide center. A ‘hub’ can be characterized as an all around associated hub in a system, and from the beginning of time, effective center points have been the ones that offer central purposes of chances, development and advancement. Singapore has been recognized as not just one of the 40 super locales, which imply huge markets with noteworthy monetary potential, however it is likewise one of the world’s most significant sea nations according to the UN Conference on Trade and Development. Singapore, aside from being a chief worldwide center port, is likewise the busiest port on the planet considering delivering weight alone, which adds up to in excess of 120,000 vessel calls every year. In 2004, just the complete vessel landings in the port surpassed one billion gross tons without precedent for Singapore’s sea history. In addition Singapore offers around 20 million tons of fortifications provided every year to ships all inclusive. Also, Singapore offers solid and proficient load taking care of, the Global Competitiveness Report 2006-7 positions Singapore as having the best Quality for Port Infrastructure. Singapore holds 70% of the worldwide raise rig-building business sector and over 65% of the world’s gliding creation stockpiling and offloading (FPSO) transformation advertise. Its innovative adroitness is detectable through the wide scope of oceanic administrations accessible, including pilot age, towage, new water flexibly, team changes, transport gra cefully and fix just as master building offices (Tan, 2005). Singapore is likewise a quick creating Petrochemical

Race and gender

The significant establishment and the foundation that ties a given people together, beside the innate affiliations is the race to which every one of us has a place. Generalizations aside, the observations that we hold or have confidence in to a huge degree decide our perspectives towards a specific gathering of individuals who fall inside the sections of these labels.Advertising We will compose a custom paper test on Race and sex explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More In the film â€Å"Race, the Power of Illusion†, a somewhat exceptional way of contention is investigated on one issue that has been fairly central to the entire human race yet it is overlooked a great part of the opportunity it become known. The film investigates race and the presumption people see comparable to this part of our public activity, and investigates the conceivable outcomes that lie past these day by day perceptions(Money, 1994). Questions flourish however, is there any smallest chanc e of the presence of the possibility that people can be ordered and taken care of distinctively relying upon their racial alliance? Are whites for the most part at a favorable position because of our foundations noticing to the discernments that white individuals are predominant? A distinction in feeling over what race is better over the rest has come about than commotion in any two fighting social orders with various races. This is apparent in declarations that bear accounts of inborn purging, war and even in touchy regions, for example, the principles that influence migration among various nations. The discussions about race have commanded practically all circles of our public activities yet we all, regardless of whether supremacist or not don't scrutinize reality behind this. Logical proof disposes of the entire behind â€Å"race† as a legend, one that isn't at standard with the occasions or rather Neanderthal. A long history of research and examination of the distinctions among the various races has yielded just one outcome; that racial contrasts go quite shallow (Buss, 2001). The natural fragile highlights that involve the human DNA don't show any distinction between individuals of give races. Sex personality, then again is another part of social mediations that impact our communications. It s not a condition of inflexibility, rather it is only a demeanor that individuals connect to specific characteristics that contain character.Advertising Looking for article on sociologies? How about we check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The distinctions, however they come out through the natural guidelines that characterize the diverse genders, are far separated and their arrangement goes further than the organic constants that are male and female (Gould, 1996). A separate of this situation would to place into point of view this idea; that individuals acquire their sex, and not their sexual orientation. For example, n aturally, one’s sex is controlled by the consequence of the transaction of the chromosomes genuinely communicated through the response of hormones and different organs, for example, the conceptive organs. In opposition to this, somebody’s sexual orientation is to an enormous degree controlled by the general public and the standards that characterize the ways of life of a given people (Gould, 1996).). The cultural discernment about manliness and women's activists is to an enormous degree directed by their social conduct and what the various societies practice as standards. One way of thinking pushing for this thought implies that had people’s characters and behaviors’ be directed by the distinctions that emerge out of their science, at that point the distinctions generally would augment. Higher hormone levels would prompt expanded exercises, and that in numerous spots their responses would be similar regardless of the geographic areas. In the event that on es’ sex would naturally decide their sexual orientation, at that point it would accordingly follow that all people would have uniform characters. References Buss, M. D. (2001). ‘Human nature and culture: A transformative mental perspective’. Diary of Personality, 69, 955â€978. Gould, S. J. (1996). The Mismeasure of Man. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation. Cash, J. (1994). ‘The idea of sexual orientation personality and Racial characterization. Diary of Sex and Marital Therapy, 20, 163 †77. Web. This article on Race and sexual orientation was composed and put together by client Moderate Vulture to help you with your own examinations. You are allowed to utilize it for research and reference purposes so as to compose your own paper; in any case, you should refer to it in like manner. You can give your paper here.

Criticism Philosophy Essay Example for Free

Analysis Philosophy Essay Not very numerous individuals can listen none protectively, or none inimically, to analysis. What's more, not very many of the individuals who listen let it be known when they see that they are incorrect. The thing is, we feel that affirmation of blame, or of being off-base, or that we have committed an error, is an indication of shortcoming. However evident disappointment is over and over declining to see your shortcomings. Figuring out how to tune in to analysis is a fundamental ability that marry all well to ace. It is tied in with keeping our hearts open (conceding judgment), and guaranteeing that we are not genuinely stirred (scared, bothered, and so forth.) by our faultfinder (this is conceding response). Figuring out how to tune in to analysis is about cautiously retaining what is being stated, and afterward sincerely assessing on the off chance that it is reasonable, valid, productive or dangerous. Simply after weve painstakingly tuned in to and assessed the analysis would we be able to react to it. Segment B: HOW TO TAKE CRITICISM 1). Consider analysis to be a chance to cooperate with the pundit to tackle the issue; not as an ill-disposed circumstance. Regardless of whether you cannot take care of the issue together with the pundit, consider the second they condemn you as an open door for every one of you to develop from whatever the issue is. Consider it to be an open door for fixing things; as a chance to listen to them, question them where you need clearness; and as an open door for you to explain what should be explained. This calls for changing your mentality; for changing your disposition (from an antagonistic one to a positive one) towards analysis. 2). View analysis as significant data about how to improve, not as an individual assault. Analysis, whether or not it is utilized as a helpful or a dangerous apparatus, can furnish us with important criticism on our exhibition. It furnishes us with criticism on where weve missed the mark, and that (i.e., recognizing what we have to enhance) is significant for our learning and development. So in any event, when your faultfinder utilizes analysis as a dangerous instrument (e.g., as an individual assault, or as an approach to put you down, or as an approach to control you, or as an approach to keep up a mental bit of leeway), distinguish his goal yet choose to give specific consideration to the analysis itself. Assess the analysis itself, and recognize what input you may get from it. To have the option to assess the analysis, you should 3). Listen cautiously to what is being said. This is taking up all the information, and assessing it to check whether it has any legitimacy. 4). Watch the drive to protect (See Defense Mechanisms): Just tune in and assess. Know the distinction between enthusiastic reasoning and discerning reasoning; think carefully, not your heart. Dont yield to your feelings (be it chuckling, outrage, dread, or whatever): basically tune in! 5). What's more, if the analysis is excessively upsetting, request to continue the gathering later; after a period to assimilate the troublesome message, and chill off a piece. Area C: HOW TO GIVE CONSTRUCTIVE CRITICISM 1). BE POLITE AND SENSITIVE. This is a call for compassion; for being sensitive to the effect of what you state, and how you express it to the individual on the less than desirable end. The individual (on the less than desirable end) is well on the way to be guarded. S/he may turn to uproarious and irate words, or may even cry. Be prepared for whatever response (counting rebukes, or assaults to hurt you back; separating into tears; beseeching you for absolution and compassion, etc. There is an entire index of responses to analysis: be prepared for any of them, and keep up your quiet). 2). BE SPECIFIC. Dont censure the entire individual (by utilizing worldwide names or clearing speculations). It is crippling for individuals to realize that there is something incorrectly without comprehending what the points of interest are, so they can change. Concentrate on the particulars; saying what the individual progressed nicely, what was done inadequately, and how the circumstance could be changed. The accompanying methodology is extremely powerful (I consider it the VWXYZ-approach): V Tell the individual what they progressed nicely (You did one or the other quite well.); W Tell the individual how glad you are, and additionally how advantageous to you (or to the association) this positive info was; X Tell the individual what was inadequately done; Y Tell the individual what the harm intends to you (or to the association); Z Give the individual proposals, in the event that you have any, with respect to how the circumstance can be changed or safeguarded. Disclose to them how they would be required to deal with a comparative issue in future. 3). OFFER A SOLUTION (See Z above). The study, similar to any helpful criticism, should highlight an approach to fix the issue. Show the individual different prospects and choices. 4). BE PRESENT. Scrutinizes, similar to commend, are best when offered eye to eye, and in private. Composing a reminder, letter, or email ransacks the individual getting the analysis of an open door for reaction or explanation. Taking everything into account, you need to separate between scrutinizing somebody and battling them in light of your own mystery motivation. At the point when you condemn, you need the individual to improve, with the goal that s/he can be better, or so you can live in agreement together. Be that as it may, when you battle somebody, you censure out of abhor or hatred: your plan is to harmed, not to help. Area D: THE MYTH OF REALITY We as a whole observe reality through various hued glasses. Our sentiments, inherent capacities, mental make-ups, characters, inner selves, attributes, physical or enthusiastic prosperity, fears, wants, needs, needs, convictions, etc, all assume a job in our impression of the real world. The statement, THERE ARE NONE SO SURE ABOUT (THEIR PERCEPTION OF) REALITY AS THOSE WHO ARE TOTALLY DELUSIONAL, has a trace of legitimacy in it; at any rate with regards to things that can be contested. Since our impression of reality contrast, the individuals who reprimand us do so dependent on the view (of the real world) that they have in their psyches. Our faultfinders view of the truth of what they are reprimanding us of as a rule contrasts from our own. On the off chance that one recognition can be shown to be 100% right, at that point those on an inappropriate side of discernment ought to concede that they are incorrect, with no dread of being considered as frail! The genuine truth is that conceding that you are incorrect (when you understand that you are) is an indication of being solid disapproved. On the off chance that, as much of the time, none of the different view of the contention causing circumstance can be exhibited to be 100% right, at that point we ought to recognize that our discernments are unique, and just settle on a truce. Before you scrutinize somebody, be certain that your own view of the truth is 100% right. On the off chance that you are not entirely certain, make certain to bring up from the beginning that you (and the one you are condemning) have various impression of the real world, however you don't know whose recognition is right. You may then reprimand different people recognition, and afterward protect your own. Area E: TYPES OF CRITICISM Behind every analysis, there is an INTENTION to either put down the one being condemned or to support them (i.e., to develop them). Regardless of whether one plans to develop or to crush, they will utilize STATEMENTS which are either FACTUAL, or FALSE, or (as is typically the situation) a MIXTURE of TRUTHS and LIES. To break down and assess someones analysis, we need to LISTEN cautiously to what they state. In the event that we don't know that we have heard them effectively, we need to SEEK CLARIFICATION. We need to: I). Distinguish THEIR INTENTIONS (to help or to put down); II). Decide THE MANNER IN WHICH THEY CRITICIZE US (are they disparaging/deigning/antagonistic or careful/thoughtful/developing?); III). Decide if THEIR INFORMATION IS ACCURATE OR WRONG. We should SEPARATE FACT FROM FICTION. We currently take a gander at the various sorts of analysis. 1. Helpful CRITICISM This happens when your faultfinder is persuaded by the longing to support you; that is, the point at which the individual who reprimands you has good intentions. Their way of introducing the analysis might be positive or negative, and they may have realities, or a blend of realities and fiction, or just erroneous data. In any case, the significant thing is the thing that drives the pundit is the longing to support you. 2. Ruinous CRITICISM In this sort of analysis, your faultfinders expectation might be at least one of the accompanying: 2.1). PUTTING YOU DOWN. This might be as a futile bothering, or constant recitation of your disappointments, or calling you names when they censure you, or making clearing speculations; 2.2). Need to feel superior. This happens when one attempts to keep up a mental favorable position over you, or to demonstrate that they are superior to you; 2.3). Control. The pundit may reprimand what you are doing trying to get you to accomplish something different. This is regularly called CHILD PSYCHOLOGY. o SECTION F: RESPONDING TO CRITICISM There are two different ways of reacting to analysis; one is Ineffective Response, and the other is Effective Response. 1. Inadequate RESPONSE STYLES These are: 1.1). Forceful STYLE. The strategies utilized include: Counter Attacks; Annoying or verbally abusing; Boisterous Denials; Deriding (Cynicism); and Scowling out of frustration. This style of reacting to analysis is ill-disposed, and frequently prompts battles and additionally hatred. 1.2). Inactive STYLE. In this style of reaction to analysis, you concur, apologize, or give up whenever there's any hint of (a normally ruinous) analysis. You may frenzy and tremble truly. Or on the other hand you may stay quiet in a defeatist way (which is not the same as pouting indignantly). In this reaction style, you give your faultfinder a lot of intensity, while sending your own confidence slamming absolute bottom. You don't look for lucidity, and you don't attempt to guard yourself. You don't attempt to give lucidity, even where you believe you have been misconstrued, or wrongly denounced. You may even assume liability/fault for things that you have not done or said. Your dread overwhelms you, and you simply wish to be left in harmony! 1.3). Uninvolved AGGRESSIVE STYLE. This may include being quiet, however not completely agreeable. Or on the other hand you may react latently by saying 'sorry' and consenting to change, just to settle the score

The Postman Always Rings Twice Book Review - 1100 Words

The Postman Always Rings Twice (Book Review Sample) Content: Student nameStudent numberCourse titleCourse code"The postman always rings twice," is a great non sequitur novella that was conceived, authored and finally published in 1934. Since the book was highly graphic in presenting violence and sexuality, considered obscenities in the 1930sà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬, it was banned in Boston. However, popularity of the novella soared to such heights that it is considered an important crime novel of the twentieth century. The advent of classic film noir in late 1930sà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬ saw it filmed, first in French (1939) then Italian (1943) and eventually in English (1946). The script writers are incredibly true to the books characters thus there is a lot of similarity. While it takes a little over two hours to watch the film the books 100 pages will probably take you longer to cover. So, which experience is better?To answer this question comprehensively; we consider the contrast and similarities in both works. The prime similarity is the title sh ared by the novel and the English version of the film. It is significant to note that later works by and on Cain explain the reality behind the choice of the title. In the preface to his (1943) novella, double indemnity, Cain describes how screen writer Vincent Lawrence conceived the title in as a metaphor for franks state at the movies end CITATION Cai92 \l 2057 (Cain, Double indemnity, 1943). Cainà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s biography by Roy Hoopes goes a step further to explain that Lawrence often tried to avoid the postmanà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s ring however, despite initial success the second ring was never missed. This is the framework on which we analyze the characters.Secondly, it is noticeable that the movies script writers incredibly adhere to the original story line. It goes without much insistence that most of the plot and character traits are similar. While this should make one write off the book as it is longer, the book is more vivid and raw in its language and descriptions. By choosing eith er, you are bound to forsake a classic or an experience of adaptive cinematography. The film showcases brilliance of censorship without altering the storyline by using clever scene arrangement, Short scenes where extreme sexuality has to be disguised. This cinematography tool is also used to compensate for suspense such as during the second attempt on the, "Greeks" life. In the book Cainà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s explicit use of compact sensual words is the block that builds suspense.Words are the tools a writer uses to express their feelings, desires and intentions to the reader. The choice of one word over another can and often makes a big difference. How you may ask. In history, Great orators are good with words and President Obamaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s triumph in the 2008 primaries and later in elections is a good example of this. I would urge one to consider the significance of the words used by Cain as well as his mode of narration. While the book is written in first person from frank perspective the film has not replicated the voice. By watching the film you will get a moderated version of the deal that you would have got from the extra minutes of reading.On the character front, Cainà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s novel is very similar to the Greek tragedies of Shakespearian times. This is primarily because they possess a fatal flaw: lust in Frank, Ambition in Cora and Stupidity in Nick. The plot is structured to revolve around and expose how they bring the character to the ground; their death. The flaws are replicated in the film with precision thanks to scripting discipline which ensures that they are mapped onto the filmà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s characters. For instance Frank is ignorant of the fact that he has been offered an opportunity to settle by eyeing his employerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s wife. Though he believes in respecting a manà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s property and that it should not be stolen, he excludes the wife for his own benefit. This is evident all along the script as everyone tries to screw the other over with exception of Nick.The film gets steamy in the initial minutes; this punch however, plummets after the death of Nick. The film making group however undertakes an innovative measure to cover this flaw by fusing comic humor into the section after Nicksà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬ death. The legal section that ensues takes advantage of black humor in the lawyerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s actions to make the section as interesting as is possible. Unlike in the book where the lawyersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬ ethnicity is withheld, here race is crucial to be to the stylistic device of humor. On the other hand it makes reading the novel after watching the film awkward though the reverse is true.

Stereotyping, Discrimination and Prejudice in the Media

The movie that I have chosen to watch for this particular bonus assignment is called The Freedom Writers. The movie is about a new teacher and the challenges that she faces in order to make the students in her English class, who come from different ethnics backgrounds and who most hate each other, get along. And, of course, by the end of the movie, she is successful in doing so. Racism played a major role in this movie, seen as a negative aspect in the childrens attitudes and mentalities. Racism is defined as negative behaviour on an incorrect assumption that one race is inherently superior to others. This is one of the many forms of discrimination which is defined as unfair actions directed against people based on their race, gender,†¦show more content†¦When the teacher asked the class who knew what the Holocaust was, only one white person out of the entire body of students knew. That is when she realized that the students had very little knowledge about the outside world. This greatly related to Gordon W. Allports theory. Allport was a psychologist who used questionnaires and interviews to measure the strength of individual prejudice, and who found a correlation between higher education and experiences such as knowledge about cultures, traveling, etc, and tolerance or the acceptance of differences between people. In this case, because the student s were not taught and were unaware that there were similar cases to theirs, only on a greater scale, they continued to prejudge, and discriminate against each other. Later on in the movie though, because they begin to travel more and gain more knowledge about the outside world, they become more aware and realize that they should change. In addition, three other theorists ideas play a role in the movie. The first one is Frances Aboud, who believes that children first learn prejudice from the media, family, friends, etc, when they are bombarded with negative images. In this movie, the girl Eva is a perfect example of how she changed the way she sees people. Since she was a little girl, her father used to tell her that she had to fight for their people as the ancestors fought againstShow MoreRelatedRacial Bias And Racial Stereotypes Essay1127 Words   |  5 PagesThe issue of race representation which becomes even more serious and cause for concern at the moment existed in the past un til now, specifically the problem of racial bias and racial stereotypes. Well development of the media is one of the significant factors which influences the issue, especially in the medium of news reporting, for example, the newspaper, network and television news, etc. News contributes to transmitting incident information, but the appearance of news misrepresentation and theRead MorePrejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination Essay1414 Words   |  6 PagesMost people have experienced prejudice, stereotyping, or discrimination at some time in his or her life. 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Both concepts of stereotyping and ethnocentrism has been identified as being superior, dogmatic, bigotry, and can be harmful and hurtful to the human spirit. Although stereotyping and ethnocentrism attitudes are different in ways of harmfulness, but they are both problems in our society today, and that needs to be addressed andRead MoreMedia s Impact On Society956 Words   |  4 PagesThe media, or communication outlets, has a huge part in the racial divide, prejudices, oppressions and discriminations in America. These outlets include newspapers, television, internet, and/or radio. Over the recent years, stereotyping and discrimination has been greatly enhanced by media outlets. Even though the media has enhanced these harmful issues, the media can improve all of the factors by making changes to how they portray different races and ethnicities. â€Å"The media can influence people Read MoreAnalysis on Rebeca Keegans Article on Racial Inequality in Media860 Words   |  4 Pageswith race is racial inequality. Racial inequality is the inadequate or unfair treatment of minorities in areas like income, education, employment, health, the criminal justice system, and media. The article written by Rebecca Keegan from the Los Angeles Times newspaper discusses the inequality of race in media specifically movies. This article relates to the unfairness in films because minorities are poorly portrayed in the majority of films. More often than not, minorities are the â€Å"bad guys† in

Essay Alcohol - 626 Words

Alcohol Alcohol has been around for ages, but only relatively recently has become a recognized problem in society. Its negative effects on the body and its impact on the mind has caused the drug to be associated with such crimes as rape, murder, and other violence. Concerns with alcoholism and drunk driving are on the rise, and underage drinking rates are soaring. Whether for the better or for the worse, alcohol is a driving factor in Americas economy and society, which makes it very important that everyone is educated about this drug. Since alcohol is a legal drug, it is one of the most widely used and most accepted drugs available. Whether used for social reasons, as an answer to problems, or as a casual everyday drink, its use is†¦show more content†¦Other teens use drinking as a way to get away from their problems at home or at school and find that when theyre drunk, they can just forget about everything else. Obviously, this drug is very heavily used as well as accepted among not only the adults, but by the teens of todays society and plays a large role in the lives and attitudes of this impressionable age group. The invincibility that many feel towards alcohol, however, may not be such a good thing. While perhaps a few drinks may allow one to feel more socially accepted or detach themselves from a problem, it can cause serious health effects on not only the drinker, but on innocent victims as well. The problems are many and the price is high for those who choose to drink irresponsibly. At the most basic level are the damage that alcohol can do to the liver, causing health problems like Cirrhosis or even cancer later in life. Too much drinking can result in alcohol poisoning, and possibly even death. When alcohol is drank with many prescription or over the counter drugs, the combination can result in various serious health consequences. FAS, or Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, can cause the baby of a drinker to be born with severe physical or mental handic aps, inflicting the innocent baby with terrifying results. Damage can be caused to the mind as well as to the body-- alcoholism is one of Americas major problems. ThisShow MoreRelatedAlcohol : Alcohol And Alcohol Essay836 Words   |  4 Pagestopic for class is alcohol. Alcohol is defined as â€Å"Chemically, a compound characterized by the presence of a hydroxyl group; in common usage, a beverage made from fermented fruits, vegetables, or grains and containing ethanol.† (From the book pg GL-1) Ethanol is defined as â€Å"A specific alcohol compound (C2H5OH) formed from the fermentation of dietary carbohydrates and used in a variety of alcoholic beverages.† (From the book pg GL-4) Definition of proof is â€Å"A measure of the alcohol content of a liquid;Read MoreAlcohol And Its Effects On Alcohol1403 Words   |  6 PagesAbstract Alcohol has long been a subject of controversy. 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Hence, as a growing number of adults have involved in severely drunkRead MoreAlcohol : Alcohol And Alcohol3289 Words   |  14 PagesEnglish 12 January 28, 2015 Alcohol Issues Alcohol is a drink that has been used differently around the world. Alcohol not only plays a role in religion in the present, it also plays a role in the past. Alcohol has been made with honey and juice for thousands of years. There was a type of alcohol that was made in early China around 7000 B.C. In India, there was alcohol called sura and this was used between 2000 and 3000 B.C. and this beverage was made from condensed rice. Alcohol could also be made fromRead MoreAlcohol At Sporting Events And Alcohol2088 Words   |  9 Pagessporting events and alcohol are intertwined. Social drinking has always been a part of the sporting spectrum, whether at a tailgate party, sports bar, professional stadium or arena, and even at home. Collegiate sporting events are no exception to this popular pastime. 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Strategic Decision Analysis with Mrt Model free essay sample

For the period of thirteen days of October 1962, the leaders of both sides spent every single moment to tackle the situation when there was a higher-than-ever probability of 100 million Americans, over 100 million Russians, and millions of Europeans being killed. Given the probability of calamity which Anatoly Gribkov Soviet General and Army Chief of Operations estimated that â€Å"Nuclear catastrophe was hanging by a thread †¦ and we weren’t counting days or hours, but minutes†, (Wiersma Larson, 1997, p. 3) our escape seems like magic. It would be irrational, however, to call on magic when it comes to politics or military. The nuclear war being averted, the ultimate consequence of this event should be counted on the strategic decision of the two men, President John F. Kennedy and Premier Nikita Khrushchev. The process of making such decision has become a magnet for many researchers including political scientists, historians, students of government and participants in governance. There are many analyses of this issue from various perspectives relying on different models such as Rational Policy, Organizational Process and Bureaucratic Politics. As a case in point, the purpose of this paper is to present the understanding of the strategic decision-process made by the key players in this crisis. Nevertheless, due to the limits of time and space, the focus is on the U. S. point of view only. In other words, this paper will elucidate the decision-process used by President Kennedy during the Cuban Missile Crisis by applying the MRT model. As prevalent features in human reasoning, certain cognitive biases during the process are also identified. Furthermore, the roles that information technology could have played in the crisis are discussed at the end of the paper as well. II. Decision-process analysis using the MRT model Let’s start with a brief introduction of the MRT model. It is a set of theories proposed by a group of authors, namely Henry Mintzberg, Duru Raisinghani, and Andre Theoret, which suggests a basic structure of â€Å"unstructured† decision processes. â€Å"This structure is described in terms of 12 elements: 3 central phases, 3 sets of supporting routines, and 6 sets of dynamic factors† (Mintzberg, Raisinghani, Theoret, 1976, p. 246). These elements will be investigated in turn along with the corresponding evidences from the Cuban Missile Crisis. The investigation will be summarized by a visualized model. 1. Central phase 1: The identification Phase This phase consists of two routines: decision recognition, where opportunities, problems, and crises are acknowledged and provoke decision activity; and diagnosis, in which the actor or the decision maker seeks to perceive the factors that stimulate the process and determin e cause-effect relationships for that particular decision situation (Mintzberg, Raisinghani, Theoret, 1976, p. 253). 1. 1. Decision Recognition Routine It can be told from the name â€Å"Cuban Missile Crisis† that the decision President Kennedy had to make in this situation is absolutely a crisis one. It is triggered by an astonishing disclosure that on October 15, 1962 the U. S. reconnaissance photographs by a U-2 revealed Soviet missiles under construction in Cuba. Early morning of the next day, President Kennedy was informed of the missile installations. This should be a severe deception to the President because it was just over a month earlier when Soviet Ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin had assured Attorney General Robert Kennedy of no offensive missiles placement in Cuba. The discovery of this astounding revelation plays as a sudden and unequivocal stimulus that requires immediate attention and initiating the decision process. Perceiving the urgent of the situation, the President scheduled two meetings on that day to have a close-up at the U-2 findings and discussing how to respond to the challenge (JFK Library). Thus, October 16, 1962 marked the beginning of the thirteen days of the most dangerous period of the Cuban Missile Crisis. 1. 2. Diagnosis Routine The first step in the diagnosis routine is â€Å"tapping of existing information channels and the opening of new ones to clarify and define the issues† (Mintzberg, Raisinghani, Theoret, 1976, p. 254). This step is well-reflected through the two meetings on the first day of the crisis. In those meetings, all the photos of Soviet missile bases were readily on the President’s desk. The ballistic missiles the President was briefed on had a range of 1,100 miles and threatened major population centers in the U. S. including New York, Washington D. C. , and Philadelphia (Wiersma Larson, 1997, p. 9). From the additional films by the surveillance flights, they could estimate the number of Soviet-operated missiles (16 – 24) and these ones could well be operational within two weeks on very little notice. Americans could not sit still facing this apocalyptic vision. Also, the meeting attempted to determine the cause – effect relationships for the decision situation. As a consequence, Soviet’s insecurity on the missile gap between the U. S. and Soviet Union is considered to be the main cause of the crisis. The U. S. response to the situation could have great effect on not only the strategic nuclear balance but also the credibility of American commitment; particularly the President’s most solemn warning to his citizens and allies (Allison, 1969, p. 696). 3 2. Central phase 2: The Development Phase In this phase, a set of activities that leads to the development of one or more solutions to the decision situation is carried out. This set may be described in terms of two basic routines, search and design. 2. 1. Search routine â€Å"Search is evoked to find ready-made solutions† (Mintzberg, Raisinghani, Theoret, 1976, p. 255). Our specific situation, however, are without precedent in history. There was no possibility for a similar crisis happening elsewhere at that time either. Soviet and the U. S. were the only two superpowers that could have such kind of encounter. Thus, search routine was not supported in the President Kennedy’s decision-process. 2. 2. Design routine â€Å"Design is used to develop custom-made solutions or to modify ready-made ones. † (Mintzberg, Raisinghani, Theoret, 1976, p. 255). The development phase jumped to the use of design routine due to the absence of search. In this case, the first action taken is that the President assembled a crisis team consisting of trusted government officials to advise him in making strategic decisions during the crisis. This team was later referred to as the Executive Committee of the National Security Council or EX-COMM. The deliberation of upper echelons of government in this group produced three alternatives for the U. S. to choose: Diplomatic pressures to engage Fidel Castrol and Nikita Khrushchev in a diplomatic stage to resolve the crisis openly. Declaration of open surveillance combined with a naval blockade against offensive weapons entering Cuba. A â€Å"surgical† air strike against the missiles followed by an invasion. 3. Central phase 3: The Selection Phase The MRT model describes this phase in terms of screen, evaluation-choice, and authorization routines. 3. 1. Screen routine This routine is evoked when â€Å"search is expected to generate more ready-made alternatives than can be intensively evaluated†. However, in our case, search was not reported then neither was the screening. 3. 2. Evaluation-choice routine Among the possible three modes of this routine namely judgment, bargaining, and analysis, the use of judgment and analytic approach had clear evidences in the crisis. Through the judgment mode, the option of diplomatic pressures was turned down for being considered unlikely to succeed by most members of EXCOMM. The outlines of alternatives were quickly narrowed to two: an air strike and a blockade. At this point, â€Å"factual evaluation is carried out, generally by 4 technocrats, followed by managerial choice† (Mintzberg, Raisinghani, Theoret, 1976, p. 258). This proposition is demonstrated through the discussion in the EX-COMM from day 3 (October 17) to day 7 (October 21) of the crisis. After great concern on the coverage of the air strike as well as the possible casualties with his top advisors, the President finalized his decision by choosing the naval blockade to prevent the missiles from becoming fully operational. This decision was made publicly through the President’s speech to the nation on day 8 (October 22). 3. 3. Authorization routine â€Å"Authorization is sought for a completed solution, after final evaluation-choice† (Mintzberg, Raisinghani, Theoret, 1976, p. 259). In our case, basically, the President Kennedy – the decision maker – had the authority to commit the government to a course of action. There is still a trace of authorization which is the approval of the Organization of American States (OAS) on day 9 (October 23) as the final step in a formal procedure. 4. Supporting routine 1: Decision Control Routines Similar to the above elements, decision control comprises two basic routines: decision planning and switching. 4. 1. Decision planning For this routine, the decision maker â€Å"attempts to establish some preliminary bounds on the decision space† (Wiersma Larson, 1997, p. 15). In our specific situation, the President constantly concerned about the timing factor and the resources he is prepared to commit to produce the response to Soviet’s move. The act of assembling a crisis team to support his decision is a clear evidence of the President’s planning. A development strategy is also perceivable in his mind. The President â€Å"wanted to appear tough yet avoid a military confrontation† when taking a stance on Cuba and the Soviet Union (Wiersma Larson, 1997, p. 10). 4. 2. Switching routine In switching routine, the decision maker determines the next step to carry out. A good evidence for this is that after recognizing the severe crisis upon the U-2 findings, the President immediately scheduled two meetings to diagnose the situation. 5. Supporting routine 2: Decision Communication Routines Exploration, investigation, and dissemination are the three communication routines that can be delineated. . 1. Exploration routine If not to mention the resembling of the recognition routine, the exploration involves the general scanning for information to build conceptual models and to develop a general data base for decision making. In that case, it is much more 5 applicable to opportunity or milder problems than crisis situation. There w ere no such communication activities in our severe crisis. 5. 2. Investigation routine This routine is used to â€Å"find or confirm information during diagnosis, search, and evaluation-choice activities† (Mintzberg, Raisinghani, Theoret, 1976, p. 61). The mission of reconnaissance at both high and low level of the U. S. over Soviet missiles in Cuba; the meeting between the President Kennedy and Soviet Foreign Minister Andrie Gromyko are excellent evidence of investigation activities during the crisis. 5. 3. Dissemination routine Considering the number of persons involved or interested in the outcome of the President’s decision, disseminating information about the process’s progress is definitely a significant issue. For the highly uncertain effect of dissemination, the information was made publicly to Americans and the U. S. allies only after the President’s decision had been finalized. On day 8 (October 22), the President made a speech to address to the nation â€Å"a flurry of activity ensued† (Wiersma Larson, 1997, p. 14) in Cub a. His decision was informed to American allies and the U. S. Senate leaders on the same day as well. 6. Supporting routine 3: Political Routines Being considered as a key element in strategic decision making, this routine reflects the influence of internal and external political behaviors during the decision process. This can be elaborated by looking at the politics of choice made by the President. From the internal aspect, the emergence of a powerful coalition of advisers arguing for the blockade including McNamara, Robert Kennedy and Sorensen is an important factor. They are the ones in whom the President â€Å"had the greatest confidence, and with whom his style was most compatible† (Allison, 1969, p. 715). The possible external factor should come from the U. S. alliance. The President understood that most allies regarded Cuba as â€Å"a fixation of the United States and not a serious military threat† (Stern, 2003, p. 00) which meant that not just international community but many allies would see an air strike as a mad act in spite of the presence of Soviet missiles in Cuba. 7. Dynamic factor 1: Interrupts Without unexpected constraints or new options, the specific decision-process in our case experienced a political impasse as an interrupt that caused temporary delay instead. Th is can be implied from the fact that when the President conceived the favor of the blockade, he still could not finalize the decision in the absence of a consensus among EX-COMM yet. There was still a considerable umber of advisors advocating the air strike. 8. Dynamic factor 2: Scheduling Delays 6 As a leader of a superpower, the President Kennedy had much more scheduled engagement and activities to get involved than anyone else. To maintain the secrecy of the issue, he still had to retain this hectic schedule which caused certain delay to the decision-process. 9. Dynamic factor 3: Feedback Delays There was an evidence of the feedback delays at the late stage of the crisis when the President had to wait for the Soviet’s reaction to the blockade’s activation. Considering the choice of naval quarantine alone, however, this was a unilateral decision and no action taken yet which meant that the decision maker did not have to await the results of other actors. Thus, no feedback delays were supported in this process. 10. Dynamic factor 4: Timing Delays and Speedups The time pressure in the crisis discouraged the occurrence of timing delays. The President along with his closest advisors tried their best to tackle the situation while well perceiving the limited time they had. The crisis decision producing vital outcomes would not support the speedups either. The President finalized his decision after ensuring great deliberation being done. 11. Dynamic factor 5: Comprehension Cycles The President cycled between selection and investigation (diagnosis) to comprehend the cost and the effectiveness of the air strike. 12. Dynamic factor 6: Failure Recycles The option of diplomatic pressures was rejected in evaluation-choice as having too low as pay off. Then the decision-process cycled back to the development phase with the discussion on the two other courses of action. 7 Identification Development Search Selection Screen Diagnosis Design Recognition Evaluation/Choice Authorise MRT model of the decision process to the crisis III. Identification of relevant cognitive biases within the decision-process Cognitive biases are cognition or mental behaviors that may prejudice decision quality. These entities can be viewed as predictable deviations from rationality (Arnott, 2006, p. 59). Being considered inherent in human reasoning, their occurrence is still being found in the President’s decision-process regardless of its great contribution to the amazing ultimate consequence. The following part of this session will identify such five cognitive biases along with their negative effects. 1. Anchoring and adjustment The anchoring factor in our case could be the President’s first impression on Soviet missile base installation. This originated in his September 4 statement in which the President had claimed the present of Soviet defensive missile in Cuba but stated that there were no offensive weapons. Moreover, Khrushchev had assured the President of that assertion as well. Therefore, the U-2 finding of Soviet’s building missile base in Cuba made the American president feel being badly deceived. Naturally, a startled anger would be his initial reaction which could play as an anchor to his judgment in the decision process. The proposition that Khrushchev’s deceitful move demanded a strong counter-move did affect the President’s initial preference which was taking out the missiles as soon as possible. If this perception had gone all the way to the final decision, in Robert Kennedy’s words, â€Å"the world might have been blown up† (Allison, 1969, p. 714). 8 2. Complexity Time pressure and other environment factors could increase the President’s perceived complexity of the situation. At the time of the crisis, John Kennedy was currently experiencing domestic political problems. Cuba was the Kennedy Administration’s â€Å"political Achilles’ heel. (Sorensen, as cited in Allison, 1969, p. 712). The finding of Khrushchev’s unhelpful act just not too far off the Congressional elections combining with the acknowledged time pressure during the week of deliberation made the burden of resolving the â€Å"utterly severe crisis† (JFK Library) seem hea vier to the American president. If that stress had not been assuaged by the support from advisors, his decision could have been negatively impacted under strain. 3. Attenuation The President Kennedy and other EX-COMM members simplified the situation by attenuating the probability of Soviet missile sites being operational already. Their discussion was founded on the premise that the missile warheads were not yet in Cuba and not attached to the missiles. This assumption supported the plan of carrying out any air strike prior to the time the missiles became operational. If they had chosen this action and the Soviet missiles had become operational before the air strike, there would have been â€Å"chaos in part of the east coast† (Mc Namara, as cited in JFK Library) which is the total reverse to what we expected and achieved at the end. 4. Escalation Being an air strike advocate from the beginning, the Joint Chiefs of Staff escalated â€Å"a previous unsatisfactory course of action† (Arnott, 2002, p. 11) which was known as Cuba I or the Bay of Pigs Invasion. This was an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the government of the Cuban dictator Fidel Castro. The Chiefs’ proposition was that the missiles provided the occasion to follow their contingency plans of cleansing the Western Hemisphere of Castro’s Communism. If their argument had dominated the discussion, the President’s decision could not have been the one we all know. . Completeness â€Å"McCone’s perceptions flowed from his confirmed prediction† (Allison, 1969, p. 714). As the first person acknowledging the incident, he argued that â€Å"the Soviets had installed the missiles in a daring political probe which the U. S. must meet with force† (Allison, 1969, p. 714). The findings on Soviet’s acts seemed to be logical and complete for his proposition without the need of further investigation on the actual motivation behind Khrushchev’s move. This behavior could have hindered the thorough vision on the issue to make a rational decision. 9 IV. Discussion on information technology’s possible roles in the case. Nowadays, we all acknowledge that information technology has developed and evolved dramatically to support decision making process from individual degree to organizational or even global extent. Unfortunately, that is not the case when looking back in time to the period of the crisis in 1962. If the President Kennedy and other players in the crisis had had access to today’s decision support technology, they would have reaped certain benefits. The most relevant technology for our situation could be communications-driven one.